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Methods:
1) X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and X-Ray photoelectron imaging (XPi)
The method of photoelectron spectroscopy is a modern method of investigation of occupied electronic states in solids. It is based on the phenomenon of the photoelectric effect: electron in a solid is optically excited by a photon to the unoccupied state. Photoelectron spectroscopy of core levels enables to obtain quantitative information about elemental and chemical composition of the surface area of the samples. Method of elemental mapping of surface is used for study elemental and chemical composition of samples with lateral resolution, the implementation of this method is possible due to the presence of special microchannel plate, which allows to analyze the emitted photoelectrons from a solid body with a spatial resolution.
2) Spin and angle resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (SARPES) of valence band
The method of photoelectron spectroscopy with angular resolution is widely used for measuring of dispersions and symmetry of electron energy bands of solid state.
3) Low energy electron difraction (LEED)
Method of LEED provides information about single crystal structure of the sample surface.
4) Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and scanning auger electron mapping (SAM)
The origin of Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) is measurement of energy and intensity of Auger electrons emitted from the sample surface when it is bombarded with a beam of electrons. An important feature of the Auger electron spectroscopy is its sensitivity to chemical state of analyzed elements on the surface. The chemical state of elements of the sample affects the shape and position of features of the spectrum of the Auger electrons.
5) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
The method allows to obtain an image of the sample surface by scanning with focused electron beam (up to 95 nm and 10 keV) with simultaneous recording of low-energy secondary electrons, excited by this beam.
6) Ion scattering spectroscopy (ISS)
Ion scattering spectroscopy (ISS) is a technique in which a beam of primary ions is scattered by a surface. The kinetic energy of scattered ions is measured. Energy losses depend on the relative masses of the surface atoms and ions, thereby measured spectrum contains information about elemental composition.
7) Reflected electron energy loss spectroscopy (REELS)
Electron energy-loss spectroscopy is a kind of electronic spectroscopy, when investigated surface irradiated by electrons with a narrow range of energies, and losses of energy of inelastically scattered electrons are recorded. Distribution of electron energies carries information about energy loss due to excitation of vibrational states, plasmons, deep levels and interband transitions.
8) Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS)
These methods allow to obtain images of surface with atomic resolution, energy spectra of occupied and unoccupied states, distribution of work function and local density of states with high lateral resolution.
9) Atomic force microscopy (AFM) (contact and non-contact modes)
The method allows to obtain images of surface of samples (including the non-conductive samples) using both cantilevers and Qplus sensors. In the latter mode STM images can be obtained sumultaneously with AFM imaging with atomic resolution.
10) Reflectron time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS)
Time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOFMS) is a method of mass spectrometry in which an ion's mass-to-charge ratio is determined via a time measurement. Using a reflector leads to a significant increase in resolution time-of-flight devices in compare with linear increases spectrometers and to an increase of mass determination accuracy. Selection of ionization source depends on substance state before ionization. Ionization is possible by electron impact or by laser radiation (photoionization).
11) Thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS)
Essense of the method is measuring composition of desorbed gas from sample heated in a vacuum in dependence on the temperature. The method allows to determine binding energy of adsorbed atoms and molecules (or activation energy of desorption), amount of surface coverage by adsorbed substances, order of kinetics of adsorption process.
12) Optical spectroscopy (range from ultraviolet through infrared)
The method allows examine emission spectrum in wavelength range from vacuum ultraviolet to the infrared. Source of low-energy electrons is used to excite the luminescence spectra in gas phase, the source of high-energy electrons is used to excite luminescence spectra of nanocomplexes on a surface of solids.